Maritime trade reference
Explore 44 major commodity groups carried through Mediterranean, Red Sea, Indian Ocean and Asian maritime networks. The catalogue separates where goods originated, where they were consumed and the ports that helped move them between regions.
Long-distance maritime commerce included high-value luxuries, but ships also carried bulk food, construction materials, industrial raw materials, textiles, containers, animals and everyday supplies. Different goods imposed different transport problems. Grain demanded cargo volume, horses demanded care, aromatics rewarded compact storage, and monumental stone depended on the ability of ships to move heavy loads more cheaply than land transport.
This catalogue does not imply that every commodity travelled on every route or in every period. Production zones, political control, demand and port importance changed over centuries. The entries are designed as starting points for understanding those changing systems.
Use the index below to jump directly to a commodity. The complete catalogue remains visible even when JavaScript is disabled, so the reference does not depend on a data request or browser scripting to work.
Jump to a traded good
Spices, aromatics and stimulants
Origins: Malabar Coast and other South Asian production zones
Markets: Red Sea, Arabian, Mediterranean and Southeast Asian markets
Representative ports: Muziris, Berenike, Aden
High value, low bulk and strong culinary and medicinal demand made pepper one of the most important long-distance Indian Ocean commodities.
Spices, aromatics and stimulants
Origins: Sri Lanka, South Asia and Southeast Asian source zones depending on species and period
Markets: South Asia, West Asia, Mediterranean and East Asian markets
Representative ports: Sri Lankan ports, South Indian ports, Arabian entrepôts
Ancient names for aromatic barks do not always map neatly onto modern botanical species, so route claims need caution.
Spices, aromatics and stimulants
Origins: Maluku Islands
Markets: Southeast Asia, South Asia, West Asia and later Mediterranean markets
Representative ports: Island Southeast Asian ports, Malay entrepôts
Cloves are a strong example of a commodity whose natural source zone was geographically restricted while demand spread very widely.
Spices, aromatics and stimulants
Origins: Banda Islands
Markets: Southeast Asia, South Asia, West Asia and later Europe
Representative ports: Banda, Malay entrepôts
Their restricted source area made them exceptionally valuable within long-distance spice networks.
Spices, aromatics and stimulants
Origins: South India and Sri Lanka
Markets: Indian Ocean and West Asian markets
Representative ports: Malabar ports, Sri Lankan ports
Cardamom travelled as a compact aromatic product through regional and long-distance merchant chains.
Spices, aromatics and stimulants
Origins: Southern Arabia and Horn of Africa
Markets: Egypt, Mediterranean, Arabia and India
Representative ports: Aden, Qana, Red Sea ports
Ritual, funerary, medicinal and elite demand supported long-distance movement by sea and caravan.
Spices, aromatics and stimulants
Origins: Horn of Africa and southern Arabia
Markets: Egypt, Mediterranean, Arabia and India
Representative ports: Adulis, Arabian ports, Red Sea ports
Myrrh circulated through overlapping Red Sea and Arabian networks and should not be treated as belonging to one single route.
Spices, aromatics and stimulants
Origins: Arabia, Horn of Africa and South Asia
Markets: Temple, court and household markets across the Indian Ocean and Mediterranean
Representative ports: Aden, Adulis, Berenike
Different resins and compounded aromatics moved together, while ancient terminology can make exact botanical identification difficult.
Spices, aromatics and stimulants
Origins: China and later other Asian production regions
Markets: East Asia, Southeast Asia and eventually wider maritime markets
Representative ports: Guangzhou, Quanzhou and later major Chinese export ports
Tea became increasingly important in later maritime commerce and belongs to a different chronological phase from Roman-era Indian Ocean trade.
Textiles, dyes and fibres
Origins: India and other Asian textile regions
Markets: Southeast Asia, Arabia, East Africa and Red Sea markets
Representative ports: Muziris, Nagapattinam, Aden, Malacca
Textiles often survive poorly archaeologically, so written records and indirect evidence are especially important.
Textiles, dyes and fibres
Origins: China and East Asian production zones
Markets: Southeast Asia, South Asia, West Asia and Mediterranean markets
Representative ports: Guangzhou, Quanzhou, Southeast Asian entrepôts
Silk moved through both overland and maritime systems and often changed hands several times before reaching final consumers.
Textiles, dyes and fibres
Origins: Egypt and eastern Mediterranean production zones
Markets: Mediterranean, Red Sea and neighbouring markets
Representative ports: Alexandria, Red Sea ports
Linen was both an everyday and high-quality textile and travelled within large regional exchange systems.
Textiles, dyes and fibres
Origins: Mediterranean, West Asian and European production regions
Markets: Regional and long-distance markets
Representative ports: Mediterranean and Black Sea ports
Woollen cloth varied enormously in quality and value, so it cannot be treated as a single standardized commodity.
Textiles, dyes and fibres
Origins: South Asia and multiple regional dye-producing zones
Markets: Textile centres around the Indian Ocean, Mediterranean and Asia
Representative ports: Indian ports, Arabian entrepôts
Dyes could be valuable because small volumes transformed large quantities of cloth.
Textiles, dyes and fibres
Origins: South Asia and tropical coastal regions
Markets: Shipboard and port markets across the Indian Ocean
Representative ports: Malabar and Sri Lankan ports
Rope, cordage and fibre products were maritime necessities as well as traded goods.
Food, drink and agricultural cargo
Origins: Egypt, North Africa, Black Sea and other cereal regions
Markets: Large urban and military markets
Representative ports: Alexandria, Ostia, Portus and Black Sea ports
Bulk grain trade shows why cheap sea transport mattered: moving staple food over land at the same scale was far more expensive.
Food, drink and agricultural cargo
Origins: South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia
Markets: Regional port cities, islands and provisioning markets
Representative ports: Bay of Bengal and South China Sea ports
Rice moved as both a staple and a provisioning cargo, though patterns varied greatly by region and period.
Food, drink and agricultural cargo
Origins: Mediterranean production regions
Markets: Mediterranean, Black Sea, Red Sea and provincial markets
Representative ports: Mediterranean ports, Alexandria
Amphorae make wine unusually visible archaeologically, although containers could be reused and redistributed.
Food, drink and agricultural cargo
Origins: Mediterranean production regions
Markets: Mediterranean cities, military zones and provincial markets
Representative ports: Carthage, Alexandria, Ostia and many regional ports
Oil moved in large quantities for food, lighting, ritual and body care.
Food, drink and agricultural cargo
Origins: Arabia, Mesopotamia, North Africa and Mediterranean zones
Markets: Regional and long-distance markets
Representative ports: Persian Gulf, Red Sea and Mediterranean ports
Durable preserved foods were well suited to both trade and shipboard provisioning.
Food, drink and agricultural cargo
Origins: Coastal salterns and inland salt-producing regions
Markets: Food-preservation, household and livestock markets
Representative ports: Numerous regional ports
Salt was low-value but essential, making it important in regional maritime exchange even when it rarely appears in glamorous trade narratives.
Food, drink and agricultural cargo
Origins: Mediterranean, Atlantic, Indian Ocean and Asian coastal fisheries
Markets: Urban and regional markets
Representative ports: Mediterranean fish-processing centres and many coastal ports
Salted fish and fish sauces could travel much farther than fresh catch.
Food, drink and agricultural cargo
Origins: South Asia and later expanding production zones
Markets: West Asia, Mediterranean and Asian markets
Representative ports: Indian Ocean ports
Sugar became increasingly significant over time, and its maritime history changes substantially between ancient, medieval and early modern periods.
Metals, stone and industrial materials
Origins: Oman, Cyprus and other mining regions
Markets: Mesopotamia, Mediterranean and South Asian production centres
Representative ports: Magan, Dilmun, Mediterranean ports
Copper was fundamental to tools, weapons and bronze production and travelled in ingots as well as finished objects.
Metals, stone and industrial materials
Origins: Central Asian, Anatolian, European and other debated source regions depending on period
Markets: Bronze-producing regions
Representative ports: Eastern Mediterranean and connected trade nodes
Tin sourcing is one of the more difficult archaeological problems, so simple single-origin maps should be avoided.
Metals, stone and industrial materials
Origins: South Asia, West Asia, Mediterranean and East Asian production zones
Markets: Regional and overseas markets
Representative ports: Indian Ocean, Mediterranean and East Asian ports
Both raw iron and high-value finished steel products could move by sea.
Metals, stone and industrial materials
Origins: Northeast Africa, Arabia, South Asia and other mining regions
Markets: Court, temple and elite markets
Representative ports: Red Sea and Indian Ocean entrepôts
Gold was portable and valuable, but bullion, coin and crafted objects need to be distinguished in historical evidence.
Metals, stone and industrial materials
Origins: Mediterranean, West Asian and Central Asian mining regions
Markets: Commercial and state monetary systems
Representative ports: Mediterranean and West Asian ports
Silver moved as bullion, coin and manufactured goods and was closely tied to fiscal systems.
Metals, stone and industrial materials
Origins: Mediterranean and European mining regions
Markets: Construction, ship fitting and manufacturing markets
Representative ports: Mediterranean ports
Heavy industrial materials reveal the scale of routine maritime freight beyond luxury trade.
Metals, stone and industrial materials
Origins: Mediterranean quarry regions
Markets: Imperial and urban building markets
Representative ports: Eastern Mediterranean quarry ports, Rome-bound routes
Stone cargoes were extremely heavy, making sea transport crucial for monumental building programs.
Metals, stone and industrial materials
Origins: Levant, Anatolia, Europe, South Asia and Southeast Asian forest zones
Markets: Shipbuilding and construction centres
Representative ports: Phoenician ports, Mediterranean ports, Indian Ocean ports
Large straight timbers were strategic where local forests could not meet shipbuilding or architectural demand.
Manufactured goods and containers
Origins: China, Southeast Asia, Mediterranean and many regional production centres
Markets: Ports and households across connected seas
Representative ports: Guangzhou, Quanzhou, Malacca, Kilwa and Mediterranean ports
Ceramics survive exceptionally well and are among the best archaeological tracers of maritime exchange.
Manufactured goods and containers
Origins: Levant, Egypt and Mediterranean production centres
Markets: Mediterranean, Red Sea, South Asian and Asian markets
Representative ports: Alexandria, Levantine ports, Red Sea ports
Glass could move as finished vessels, beads or raw material for secondary working.
Manufactured goods and containers
Origins: Mediterranean, West Asian, South Asian and East Asian production centres
Markets: Regional and long-distance markets
Representative ports: Major commercial ports across all route systems
Tools, vessels, mirrors, weapons and prestige metal objects circulated alongside raw metals.
Manufactured goods and containers
Origins: South Asia, Mediterranean, Africa and Southeast Asia
Markets: Indian Ocean, African and Asian markets
Representative ports: Arikamedu-region networks, Red Sea and East African ports
Stone and glass beads are small, durable and archaeologically visible, making them important evidence for exchange.
Manufactured goods and containers
Origins: China, West Asia and later wider production regions
Markets: Administrative, religious and scholarly markets
Representative ports: East Asian, Indian Ocean and Mediterranean ports
Written materials moved ideas as well as commodities, although organic preservation is uneven.
Luxury goods, animals and maritime resources
Origins: Gulf of Mannar, Persian Gulf and other fisheries
Markets: South Asian, West Asian and Mediterranean elite markets
Representative ports: Korkai, Persian Gulf ports, South Indian ports
Pearls were light, portable and extremely valuable, making them well suited to long-distance exchange.
Luxury goods, animals and maritime resources
Origins: East Africa, Northeast Africa and South Asia
Markets: Mediterranean, Arabia, India and East Asia
Representative ports: Adulis, East African ports, Indian ports
Ivory linked inland hunting and collection zones with maritime export systems and elite consumption.
Luxury goods, animals and maritime resources
Origins: Indian Ocean and tropical maritime regions
Markets: Luxury craft markets in South Asia, East Asia and Mediterranean-connected systems
Representative ports: East African, Arabian and South Asian ports
Tortoiseshell appears in historical trade records but modern wildlife conservation concerns make it important to distinguish historical description from present-day commerce.
Luxury goods, animals and maritime resources
Origins: South Asia, Central Asia, East Africa and other source regions
Markets: Court, jewellery and ritual markets
Representative ports: Indian and Arabian entrepôts
Carnelian, beryl, sapphire and other stones travelled in both raw and worked form.
Luxury goods, animals and maritime resources
Origins: Mediterranean and other marine zones
Markets: South Asian and Asian jewellery and ritual markets
Representative ports: Mediterranean ports, Indian Ocean entrepôts
Mediterranean coral is a useful example of west-to-east luxury movement balancing east-to-west spices and textiles.
Luxury goods, animals and maritime resources
Origins: Arabia, Persia and West Asian breeding regions
Markets: Indian coastal kingdoms and other Asian military markets
Representative ports: Aden and South Asian ports
Live-animal transport was expensive and risky but could be justified by elite military demand.
Luxury goods, animals and maritime resources
Origins: Africa and South Asia
Markets: Royal courts, warfare and spectacle markets
Representative ports: Red Sea and Indian Ocean ports
Live transport required specialized logistics, and surviving textual accounts often emphasize exceptional shipments rather than routine volumes.
Luxury goods, animals and maritime resources
Origins: Indian Ocean islands and tropical coasts
Markets: Africa, South Asia and Asian exchange systems
Representative ports: Maldives-linked routes and Indian Ocean entrepôts
Shells could function as ornaments, ritual goods and, in some contexts, money-like media of exchange.
Finding a commodity at a distant port proves movement of the object, but it does not automatically prove a direct voyage between its source and findspot. Goods often passed through brokers, warehouses and multiple vessels. Archaeologists therefore combine artefact distributions with inscriptions, shipwreck cargoes, production studies, botanical evidence and written sources.
The most useful next step is to connect a commodity to the network that carried it. Compare the Indian Ocean monsoon network, Red Sea to India trade, South China Sea network, Phoenician western Mediterranean routes and the wider route collection.